Multivitamins---Tested by ConsumerLab

To my greatest amazement, my expensive multivitamin (Vitamin Code for women), did NOT pass the Consumer Lab test. See list below:

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RESULTS OF CONSUMERLAB.COM TESTING OF MULTIVITAMIN/MULTIMINERAL SUPPLEMENTS Click on for additional information on the product Click on beneath a product name to find a vendor that sells it. To find retailers that sell some of the listed products click here.
Product Name and Suggested Serving For comparisons of the ingredients in the products see separate tables: Compare Vitamins, Compare Minerals, and Compare Other Ingredients	Company (Dist. = Distributor Mfd. = Manu- facturer	Test Results (See How Products Were Tested)
		OVERALL RESULTS: APPROVED (Passed) or NOT APPROVED (Failed)	Contained Claimed Amount of Nutrients	Did Not Exceed Contamina- tion Limit  for Lead	Able to Break Apart Properly (Applies only to tablets and caplets)
General (Adult):
Carlson® Super 2 Daily Vitamins and Minerals Iron Free (2 softgels per day)*	Dist. by J.R. Carlson Laboratories, Inc.	APPROVED			NA
Eniva® Original VIBETM (1 fluid ounce, 1-2 per day)*	Dist. by Eniva Corp.	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin and magnesium at 2 fl oz)			NA
Jamieson® Chewable Vita Vim® (2 chewable tablets per day)	Dist. by Jamieson Laboratories	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
Life Extension® Two Per Day Tablets (2 tablets per day)*	Mfd. by Quality Supplements and Vitamins, Inc.	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)
Metagenics® Chewable (1-3 chewable tablets per day) (Also has directions for children)1	Mfd. by Metagenics, Inc.	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin at 2-3 chewable tablets)			NA
Multi-betic® Multi-Vitamin-Mineral-Antioxidant Advanced Diabetic Formula (2 tablets per day)	Mfd. for Health Care Products	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)
NatrolTM My Favorite Multiple® (2 teaspoons per day)	Mfd. for Natrol®, Inc.	NOT APPROVED	Found only 69.8% of claimed calcium		NA
Pure Encapsulations® Multi t/d Basic Two-Per-Day Multivitamin (2 vegetable capsules per day)*	Mfd. by Pure Encapsulations, Inc.	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
Purity Products Perfect Multi® (4 vegetarian capsules per day)	Mfd. by Purity Products	NOT APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)	Found only 50% of claimed folate		NA
Solgar® Formula VTM VM-75® Multiple Vitamins with Chelated Minerals (1 tablet per day)*	Mfd. by Solgar Vitamins and Herbs	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)
Swanson® Health Products Daily Multi-Vitamin and Mineral (1-2 capsules per day)*	Dist. By Swanson Health Products	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin and, at 2 capsules, for vit. A as retinol)			NA
TwinLab® Daily One CapsTM with Iron (1 capsule per day)*	Mfd. by Ideasphere	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
USANA EssentialsTM Chelated Mineral (4 tablets per day)* [Sold packaged with Mega Antioxidant - below]	Mfd. by Usana Health Sciences, Inc.	APPROVED
USANA EssentialsTM Mega Antioxidant (4 tablets per day)* [Sold packaged with Chelated Mineral - above]	Mfd. by Usana Health Sciences, Inc.	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)
WEILTM Andrew Weil, M.D. Daily Multivitamin for Optimum Health (1 tablet per day)*	Mfd. by Ideasphere	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)
General - Whole Food (Adult)
Juice Plus+ Garden Blend® (2 capsules per day)	Dist. by NSA	APPROVED			NA
Nature's Plus® Source of Life® Multivitamin and Mineral Supplement with Whole Food Concentrates (3 tablets per day)	Mfd. by Natural Organics Laboratories, Inc.	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)
Women's:
CVS® Pharmacy Daily Multiple For Women (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by CVS Pharmacy, Inc.	APPROVED
Garden of Life® Vitamin CodeTM Raw Women (4 vegetarian capsules per day)2	Dist. by Garden of Life, Inc.	NOT APPROVED	Found only 66.1% of claimed vitamin A 2		NA
GNC Women's Hair, Skin, and Nails Formula (2 caplets per day)*	Dist. by General Nutrition Corporation	APPROVED
GNC Women's Ultra Mega® (2 time-release caplets per day)*	Dist. by General Nutrition Corporation	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
GNC Women's Ultra Mega® Active (2 time-release caplets per day)*	Dist. by General Nutrition Corporation	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
GNC Women's Ultra Mega® 50 Plus (2 time-release caplets per day)*	Dist. by General Nutrition Corporation	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
Nature Made® Multi for Her 50+ (1 tablet per day)*	Dist. by Nature Made Nutritional Products	APPROVED
NSI® Synergy Women's® Multivitamin Version 5 (8 capsules per day)	Mfd. by Nutraceutical Sciences Institute®	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
Puritan's Pride® Time Release Mega Vita Min For Women (2 tablets per day)*	Mfd. by Puritan's Pride, Inc.	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
Women's One-A-Day® (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Bayer HealthCare, LLC	APPROVED
Similar to Approved Products:***
Nature's Bounty® High Potency Time Release, Ultra WomanTM	Mfd. By Nature's Bounty, Inc.	Similar to: Puritan's Pride® Time Release Mega Vita Min For Women (Above UL for niacin)
Vitamin World® Time Release Mega Vita Min For Women	Mfd. by Vitamin World, Inc	Similar to: Puritan's Pride® Time Release Mega Vita Min for Women (Above UL for niacin)
Prenatal:
Pregnancy PlusTM Multivitamin Formulated by Fertility Specialist Amos Grunebaum, MD (1 tablet per day)	Dist. By Fairhaven Health, LLC	APPROVED
Rainbow Light® Just Once® Prenatal OneTM Vegan GuardTM Multivitamin (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Rainbow Light Nutritional Systems	NOT APPROVED	Found only 41.3% of claimed vitamin A
Rite Aid Prenatal Tablets with Folic Acid (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Rite Aid Corporation	APPROVED
Men's:
GNC Men's Mega Men® (2 time-release caplets per day)*	Dist. by General Nutrition Corporation	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
GNC Men's Mega Men® 50 Plus (2 time-release caplets per day)*	Dist. by General Nutrition Corporation	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
GNC Men's Mega Men® Sport (2 time-release caplets per day)*	Dist. by General Nutrition Corporation	APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)			NA
Now® AdamTM Superior Men's Multi (3 VCaps® per day)	Mfd. by Now Foods	NOT APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin and, at level found, for folic acid)	Found 258.8% of claimed folic acid		NA
Opti-Men (3 tablets per day)	Mfd. by Optimum Nutrition.	NOT APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)		Lead contami- nation at 1.62 mcg/day	NA
Target Men's Daily Multivitamin (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Target Corporation	APPROVED
Senior's:
All One® Active Seniors Multiple Vitamin and Mineral Powder [4 teaspoons (15 grams) per day] (Also has directions for children)3	Dist. by Nutritech® Corp.	NOT APPROVED** (Above UL for niacin)	Found only 44.1% of claimed vitamin A		NA
Centrum® Silver® (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Wyeth Consumer Healthcare	APPROVED
Equate® Mature Multivitamin 50+ (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.	APPROVED
Kirkland SignatureTM Mature Multi Vitamins and Minerals Adult 50+ (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Costco Wholesale Corporation	APPROVED
Member's Mark® Mature Multi, Adults 50+ (1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Sam's West, Inc	APPROVED
Children's:
FlintstonesTM Gummies (2-3 yrs - 1 gummy per day; over 4 yrs - 2 gummies per day)4	Dist. by Bayer HealthCare LLC	APPROVED			NA
Hero NutritionalsTM Yummi® Bears® Multi-Vitamin and Mineral (up to 3 bears per day)5	Dist. by Hero Nutritional Products, LLC	APPROVED** (At 3 bears per day, above UL for vit. A as retinol (ages 1 to 3) and zinc (ages 1 to 3))			NA
L'il Critters® Groovy Gummy VitesTM (2 gummies per day)4	Mfd. for Northwest Natural Products, Inc.	APPROVED** (Above UL for vit. A as retinol (ages 1-3)			NA
Trader Darwin's® Children's Chewable Vitamins (up to 4 yrs - 1 chewable tablet per day; over 4 yrs 2 chewable tablets per day)	Mfd. by Trader Joe's	APPROVED** Above UL for vit. A as retinol (ages 1-3 with 1 tablet.; ages 4-8 with 2 tablets) and for niacin (ages 4 to 8 with 2 tablets)			NA
Water:
Glaceau Vitamin Water® Multi-V Lemonade A-Zinc (8 fl oz serving size - 2.5 servings per bottle)	Mfd. by Glaceau	NOT APPROVED** (Above UL for folic acid at level found if whole bottle consumed/day)	Found 1,500% of claimed folic acid		NA
Propel Fit WaterTM (8 fl oz serving size - about 3 servings per bottle)	Dist. by the Gatorade Co.	APPROVED			NA
Sobe® Life Water® E-Ssential Yuzu Black Currant (8 fl oz serving size - 2.5 per bottle)	Dist. by South Beach Beverage Co., Inc.	APPROVED			NA
Pet:
21st Century Pet Nutrition Pet ChewsTM Plus (up to 10 lbs tablet per day; 10-20 lbs 1 tablet per day)*	Dist. by 21st Century Pet Nutrition	APPROVED			NA
Halo Purely for Pets® VitaGloTM Daily Greens (2-11 lbs 1 tablet 2-3 times/day; 12-25 lbs 2 tablets 1-2 times/day; 26-50 lbs 3 tablets 1-2 times/day; 51+ lbs 3-4 tablets, 1-2 times/day)	Dist. by Halo Purely for Pets, Inc.	NOT APPROVED	Found only 46% of claimed vitamin A and 54.7% of claimed minimum for calcium		NA
Pet-Tabs® Complete Daily Vitamin-Mineral Supplement for Dogs (up to 10 lbs tablet per day; over 10 lbs 1 tablet per day)	Dist. by Virback AH, Inc.	NOT APPROVED		Lead contamination at 6.45 mcg per tablet	NA
NA - Not applicable. Only applies to regular tablets and caplets. - Canadian product. *Tested through CL's Voluntary Certification Program prior to, at time of, or after initial posting of this Product Review. **Exceeds the UL for one or more nutrients. See Compare Vitamins and Compare Minerals tables for details. ***Product identical in formulation and manufacture to a product that has passed testing but sold under a different brand. For more information see CL's Multi-Label Testing Program. 1 - Children ages 2 to 4 years: Take one tablet daily. Children ages 4 to 7 years: Take one tablet one to two times daily. Children over 7 years and adults: Take one tablet three times daily or as directed by your healthcare practitioner. 2 - Does not follow FDA labeling requirements for vitamin A and vitamin E: Label stated: "Vitamin A Complex - 6,000 IU" (Beta-carotene, Alpha-carotene, Gamma-carotene, Lycopene). FDA defines vitamin A as only retinol and beta-carotene and permits only those to be listed in IU amounts. Other carotenes must be labeled in micrograms; Label stated: "Vitamin E Complex - 30 IU" (Beta-carotene, Alpha-carotene, Gamma-carotene, Lycopene). FDA defines vitamin E as only alpha-tocopherol and permits only alpha-tocopherol to be listed in IU amounts. Other tocopherols and tocotrienols must be labeled in micrograms. 3 - Children ages 4 to 12: 2 teaspoons (7.5 grams); ages 13 to Adult: 4 teaspoons (15 g). 4 - Label recommends not for children under 2 years of age due to risk of choking. 5 - Directions state that parents may give child up to three bears per day; no specification by age group.
Unless otherwise noted, information about the products listed above is based on the samples purchased by ConsumerLab.com (CL) for this Product Review. Manufacturers may change ingredients and label information at any time. So be sure to check labels carefully when evaluating the products you use or buy. If a product's ingredients differ from what is listed above, it may not necessarily be of the same quality as what was tested. The information contained in this report is based on the compilation and review of information from product labeling and analytic testing. CL applies what it believes to be the most appropriate testing methods and standards. The information in this report does not reflect the opinion or recommendation of CL, its officers or employees. CL cannot assure the accuracy of information provided to it by third parties. Liability to any person for any loss or damage caused by errors, omissions, or inaccuracies in this report is hereby disclaimed.
Copyright ConsumerLab.com, LLC, 2009. All rights reserved. Not to be reproduced, excerpted, or cited in any fashion without the express written permission of ConsumerLab.com LLC.

ConsumerTips^TM: What to Consider when Buying and Using These Products:
In addition to product quality, a critical issue for multivitamin/multimineral products is whether the type of ingredients and amounts are right for the person taking the product. Although by no means comprehensive, below is useful reference information about ingredients often found in multis.

As required by the FDA, dietary supplements must show on their labels or packaging the percent of the Daily Value for certain vitamins and minerals contained. However, the percentages given may not reflect the latest Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) or Adequate Intakes (AIs). Nor are products required to provide information indicating whether their ingredients may exceed Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for the individuals for whom they are intended and many do exceed these ULs.

These values (RDAs, AIs, and ULs) are collectively known as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) and are established by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. A Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the average daily dietary intake level that is thought to be sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender. An Adequate Intake (AI) is similar to an RDA but is more of an approximation used when there is not sufficient information to develop an RDA. A Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) is the highest level of daily intake of a nutrient that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for most people. As intake increases above the UL, the risk of adverse effects may increase. Like the RDAs and AIs, the ULs vary according to one's age, life stage, and gender. Individuals are advised not to regularly exceed the UL unless medically recommended and supervised.

Most products will list the amount of each claimed ingredient. The information provided below can help one determine whether such amounts are appropriate. Keep in mind that 1,000 mcg (micrograms) is the same as 1 mg (milligram), and 1,000 mg equals 1 gram. IU stands for International Units and is used for certain ingredients measured by their activity rather than weight.

Note that where the text below describes what the vitamin does in the body, or describe symptoms of severe deficiency, this does not necessarily indicate the benefits to be obtained by taking that vitamin. For example, vitamin A is necessary for vision, but if you are not severely vitamin A deficient, taking more vitamin A will not enhance your vision. Since few people today are severely deficient in any nutrient, the actual benefits of nutrient supplementation are more related to problems caused by marginal deficiency, but these are seldom clear at the current state of knowledge.

Vitamins and minerals are often used in another way rather than to correct marginal deficiencies: they are proposed for use at doses much higher than nutritional needs in hopes of providing a benefit that may be unrelated to the nutrient's ordinary function in the body. There are a great many of these proposed "megadose" uses. For more detailed information, see the links to Reviews of specific vitamins and minerals as well as articles in the Natural Products Encyclopedia.

Vitamins:

• Vitamin A is necessary to maintain good vision and skin. In supplements, "Vitamin A" usually refers to retinol (including retinyl palmitate and retinyl acetate) as well as beta-carotene. Retinol is found in animal-derived sources such as dairy foods and liver. Beta-carotene comes from fruits and vegetables, such as carrots and spinach. It is thought that beta-carotene is converted in the body into vitamin A based on the body's need for vitamin A and, therefore, may be a safer form of vitamin A to avoid potential overdosing. While supplement labels generally combine beta-carotene and retinol in calculating their vitamin A content, many will also note the percent of vitamin A that is contributed by beta-carotene. Recommended amounts of vitamin A are discussed below:
  • Be aware that the amount of vitamin A in supplements is usually shown in IUs. Labels may alternatively (and actually more correctly) list their vitamin A content in micrograms (shown as mcg). The microgram equivalent of one IU of vitamin A depends upon the form of vitamin A. For the "retinol" form, 0.3 mcg equals 1 IU. For the "retinyl acetate" form, 3.44 mcg equals 1 IU. For the "retinyl palmitate" form, .55 micrograms equals 1 IU.
  • The RDA for vitamin A is 1,000 IU for children 1 to 3 years old, 1,333 IU for those 4 to 8, and 2,000 IU for those 9 to 13. For males 14 years and up, the RDA is 3,000 IU. For females 14 years and older, 2,333 IU is recommended. These amounts can be obtained from the food sources mentioned above.
  • Too much vitamin A can be a problem. The most important risk involves pregnant women: vitamin A given in modestly excessive doses can cause birth defects. Much higher doses of vitamin A can cause other forms of harm, such as abnormalities in the liver, central nervous system, bone and skin. The UL for daily intake should not exceed 2,000 IU for children 1 to 3 years old, 3,000 IU for those 4 to 8, 5,666 IU for those under 9 to 13, 9,333 IU for those 14 to 18, and 10,000 IU for adults. To minimize the risk of birth defects such as cleft palate, heart defects, and hydrocephalus, the March of Dimes recommends that a pregnant woman should not use a multivitamin or prenatal supplement that contains more than 5,000 IU of preformed vitamin A. It also advises that a pregnant woman not take any vitamin A supplements beyond that amount and minimize consumption of liver, which contains preformed vitamin A. However, these ULs apply only to vitamin A consumed from supplements, fortified foods, and animal sources, and does not include vitamin A as beta-carotene or intake from fruits and vegetables.
  • One must be aware that some products, especially those designed for a broad range of individuals may exceed the ULs for certain subgroups. For example, a multivitamin for "children" may be appropriate for older children but exceed ULs for younger children.
    (See ConsumerLab.com's Vitamin A Product Review for more information.)

• B Vitamins: (See ConsumerLab.com's B Vitamin Product Review for more information).
  • Thiamin (B-1) assists nervous function. It is found in yeast, peas, beans, enriched flour and whole grains in large enough amounts that supplementation is normally not necessary. The most important exceptions are individuals with alcoholism or congestive heart failure, who may become thiamin deficient. The RDA is 0.5 mg for children 1 to 3, 0.6 mg for those 4 to 8, and 0.9 mg for those 9 to 13. For males 14 years and older the RDA is 1.2 mg. For females 14 to 18 the RDA is 1.0 mg, and it increases to 1.1 mg for those 19 and older. However, the RDA for pregnant or lactating women is 1.4 mg. ULs have not been established for thiamin, and it is believed to be safe even at very high doses.
  • Riboflavin (B-2) maintains vision and the skin. Although found in many vegetables and nuts, as well as enriched flour, some supplementation may be needed in children and the elderly. The RDA is 0.5 mg for children 1 to 3, 0.6 mg for those 4 to 8, and 0.9 mg for those 9 to 13. For males 14 years and older the RDA is 1.3 mg. For females 14 to 18 the RDA is 1.0 mg, and it increases to 1.1 mg for those 19 and older. However, the RDA for pregnant women is 1.4 mg and for lactating women it is 1.6 mg. Much higher amounts (400 mg per day) have been suggested in the prevention of migraines. ULs have not been established for riboflavin; this is believed to be a safe nutrient even at high doses.
  • Niacin (B-3) helps release energy from carbohydrates. It is available in the diet from enriched white flour, as well as from peanuts, fish and meat. The RDA is 6 mg for children 1 to 3, 8 mg for those 4 to 8, and 12 mg for those 9 to 13. For males 14 years and older the RDA is 16 mg. For females 14 and older the RDA is 14 mg. However, the RDA for pregnant women is 18 mg and for lactating women it is 17 mg. High doses of niacin may cause harmless but unpleasant flushing of the skin, including reddening, burning, tingling, itching and pain. The "niacinamide" form of niacin is not believed to cause skin flushing. At very high doses of niacin, liver inflammation can also occur. The UL for niacin is fairly low and is based on the amount causing skin flushing. The UL for niacin applies only to that consumed from supplements and fortified foods (other food sources are not included) and is 10 mg for children 1 to 3, 15 mg for those 4 to 8, 20 mg for those 9 to 13, 30 mg for those 14 to 18, and 35 mg for individuals 19 years and older. Doses of niacin far above the ULs can improve cholesterol levels. Niacin should only be used in this way under medical supervision.
  • Pyridoxine (B-6) is important in many aspects of metabolism and in maintaining the immune and nervous systems. B-6 is widely available in the diet, but marginal deficiency is believed to be relatively common in the developed world. Inadequate B-6 may raise blood levels of the substance homocysteine, and elevated homocysteine may in turn increase risk of cardiovascular disease. On this basis, B-6 supplements have been suggested as a means of helping to prevent cardiovascular disease, but efficacy has not been proven. The RDA is 0.5 mg for children 1 to 3, 0.6 mg for those 4 to 8, and 1.0 mg for those 9 to 13. For males 14 to 50 the RDA is 1.3 mg, and for those 51 and older it is 1.7 mg. For females 14 to 18 it is 1.2 mg, for those 19 to 50 it is 1.3 mg, and for those 51 and older it is 1.5 mg. However, the RDA for pregnant women is 1.9 mg and for lactating women it is 2.0 mg. The UL for B-6 is 30 mg for children 1 to 3, 40 mg for those 4 to 8, 60 mg for those 9 to 13, 80 mg for those 14 to 18, and 100 mg for individuals 19 years and older. Intake of B-6 above these levels can cause toxic effects, such as nerve damage. B-6 supplementation at a high but still safe dose of 30 mg daily has shown some promise for treating morning sickness. Other proposed uses of high-dose B-6, such as PMS, autism and asthma, lack reliable scientific support.
  • Folic acid (Folate, Folacin or B-9) is known to reduce the risk of certain birth defects in offspring. Furthermore, adequate folate, along with vitamin B-6 and vitamin B12, are necessary to keep homocysteine levels low (see B-6 above). Good natural sources of folic acid include dark green leafy vegetables and oranges. Because folic acid is added to enriched grains and some other foods, most people get sufficient folic acid from their diet. Nonetheless, supplements are generally recommended for women who are pregnant or may soon become pregnant. The RDAs are shown below. It is important to know, however, that these RDAs are based on intake from regular food sources. Folic acid from supplements and fortified foods is actually absorbed twice as well as that from regular food sources. Consequently, if one is relying on supplements or fortified foods to reach the RDA, they only need one-half the amount listed in the following RDAs: 150 mcg for children 1 to 3, 200 mcg for children 4 to 8, and 300 mcg for children 9 to 13. For individuals 14 years and older the RDA is 400 mcg. However, the RDA for pregnant women is 600 mcg, and for lactating women it is 500 mcg. In view of its importance to developing fetuses during the first few weeks after conception, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 mcg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folic acid from a varied diet.
    
    The UL for folic acid applies only to that consumed from supplements and fortified foods and is 300 mcg for children 1 to 3, 400 mcg for those 4 to 8, 600 mcg for those 9 to 13, and 800 mcg for those 14 to 18. For individuals 19 years and older the UL is 1,000 mcg. Intake of high doses of folic acid can make it difficult to detect severe vitamin B-12 deficiency; severe B-12 deficiency is a relatively rare condition, but missing the diagnosis can be catastrophic, and that possibility is the main reason for concern about excessive folic acid intake. In addition, folic acid supplementation at 1,000 mcg per day has been associated with a more than doubling of the risk of prostate cancer (JNCI, 2009).
    
    
  • B-12 deficiency can cause anemia, and, if the deficiency is severe enough, irreversible nerve damage may occur. B-12 is also required, along with folate and B-6, to maintain low homocysteine levels. However, true deficiency of this vitamin is rare. Vitamin B-12 is found in abundant quantity in meat, dairy products and eggs, and the body can store enough B-12 to last for years. Note, though, that B-12 is not found at useful levels in any purely plant-based substance. For this reason, total vegetarians (vegans) need to take a B-12 supplement. Deficiency might also occur in people with low stomach acidity, such as seniors or those taking drugs that reduce stomach acid (such as Prilosec or Zantac). The reason is that stomach acid is required to separate B-12 from the proteins in which it is naturally found. People with low stomach acid can still absorb the purified B-12 found in supplements. The RDA is 0.9 mcg for children 1 to 3, 1.2 mcg for those 4 to 8, and 1.8 mcg for those 9 to 13. For individuals 14 years and older the RDA is 2.4 mcg. However, the RDA for pregnant women is 2.6 mcg and for lactating women it is 2.8 mcg. ULs have not been established for vitamin B-12.
    
    
• Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is required for healthy blood vessel walls, gums, and bones. It is also a strong antioxidant. Vitamin C is found in many vegetables, such as broccoli and Brussels sprouts, as well citrus and other fruits, so that a healthful diet should allow one to meet the RDA. The RDA is 15 mg for children 1 to 3, 25 mg for those 4 to 8, and 45 mg for those 9 to 13. For males 14 to 18 the RDA is 75 mg, and it is 90 mg for those ages 19 and higher. For females 14 to 18 the RDA is 65 mg, and it is 75 mg for those ages 19 and higher. However, the RDA for pregnant women 18 years and younger is 80 mg and 85 mg if 19 or older, and the RDA for lactating women 18 years and younger is 115 mg and 120 mg if 19 or older. Too much vitamin C can cause diarrhea and other gastric disturbances. The UL for vitamin C is 400 mg for children 1 to 3, 650 mg for those 4 to 8, 1,200 mg for those 9 to 13, 1,800 mg for those 14 to 18, and 2,000 mg for individuals 19 years and older. Dosages of vitamin C far above nutritional needs have been recommended for a great many illnesses, including the common cold. See ConsumerLab.com's Vitamin C Product Review for more information.
  
  
• Vitamin D (cholecalciferol) helps the body absorb calcium to promote strong bones and teeth. It can be obtained in sufficient amounts from fortified milks and foods and from exposure to sunlight. However, people who live in northern climates may easily become vitamin D deficient during the winter, especially if they are dark-skinned. Also, increased concern about skin cancer has caused people to avoid the sun, and this creates a potential risk of reduced vitamin D. There is some evidence that inadequate vitamin D intake can lead to an increased risk of various forms of cancer, including breast cancer. Vitamin D is measured as micrograms of cholecalciferol or in International Units (IUs) of vitamin D activity. One microgram equals 40 IUs. An AI (Adequate Intake) has been established but is only relevant if an individual is not getting adequate exposure to sunlight. The AI is 5 micrograms (200 IU) for individuals ages 1 to 50, 10 micrograms (400 IU) for those 51 to 70, and 15 micrograms (600 IU) for those 71 years and older. Excessive intake of vitamin D as a supplement can potentially result in hypercalcemia (too much calcium in the blood) with symptoms including constipation, confusion, weakness, loss of appetite and painful calcium deposit. Taking too much during pregnancy can cause abnormalities in the fetus. The UL for individuals 1 year old and above is 50 micrograms (2,000 IU). (See ConsumerLab.com's Vitamin D Product Review for more information.)
  
  
• Vitamin E (tocopherol) is an antioxidant. Most diets provide enough vitamin E to meet RDAs as it is easily obtained from food sources such as nuts, seeds, whole grains, vegetable oils, and the fatty part of meats. For a time, megadoses of this nutrient (much higher than could be reasonably obtained through diet) were widely recommended in the belief that it would help prevent cancer and cardiovascular disease. Unfortunately, accumulating evidence has largely dashed this hope, at least regarding the most common form of vitamin E supplements (alpha tocopherol, whether synthetic or natural). There is still some possibility that high dosages of vitamin E may reduce risk of prostate cancer, and that other forms of vitamin E, such as gamma tocopherol, might offer the benefits hoped for with standard vitamin E supplements. High dose vitamin E has also shown promise for slowing the progression of Alzheimer's disease and enhancing the immune response to vaccinations in seniors. There are literally hundreds of other proposed uses of high dose vitamin E, but they generally lack strong scientific support. Vitamin E is measured as IUs of vitamin E activity or, more recently, in milligrams of active alpha-tocopherol. Most supplements are still labeled using IUs. Complicating matters a bit, the conversion factor between IUs and milligrams differs for natural vitamin E versus synthetic vitamin E. Most multis contain synthetic vitamin E, for which the conversion rate is 1 IU for each 0.45 mg of active alpha-tocopherol. The conversion rate for natural vitamin E is 1 IU for each 0.67 mg of active alpha-tocopherol.
  
  The RDA for vitamin E as active alpha tocopherol for children 1 to 3 is 6 mg (13 IU synthetic or 9 IU natural), for those 4 to 8 it is 7 mg (16 IU synthetic or 10 IU natural), and for those 9 to 13 it is 11 mg (24 IU synthetic or 16 IU natural). The RDA for individuals ages 14 and older is 15 mg (33 IU synthetic or 22 IU natural). However, the RDA for lactating women is 19 mg (42 IU synthetic or 28 IU natural). There are some concerns that high doses of vitamin E may impair platelet activity and lead to increased risk of bleeding. This risk would be expected to increase if high doses of vitamin E were combined with drugs that impair clotting. The ULs for vitamin E apply only to that consumed from supplements and fortified foods and are as follows: for children 1 to 3 it is 200 mg, for children 4 to 8 its is 300 mg, for those 9 to 13 it is 600 mg, and for those 14 to 18 it is 800 mg. The UL for individuals 19 and older is 1,000 mg. One must also be aware that the 1,000 mg per day adult UL translates into about 1,500 IU's of natural vitamin E, but only 1,100 IU's of synthetic vitamin E because both the active and inactive forms of alpha-tocopherol found in synthetic vitamin E may contribute to this effect on blood clotting. The ULs therefore translate approximately into the following IU amounts: for children 1 to 3 the UL is 220 IU synthetic or 300 IU natural, for those 4 to 8 it is 330 IU synthetic or 450 IU natural, for those 9 to 13 it is 660 IU synthetic or 900 IU natural, and for those 14 to 18 it is 880 IU synthetic or 1,200 IU natural. (See ConsumerLab.com's Vitamin E Product Review for more information.)
  
  
• Vitamin K plays a central role in blood clotting as well as bone formation. Foods, such as green leafy vegetables, can provide sufficient amounts, and intestinal bacteria also produce vitamin K. True deficiency is rare; however, there is some evidence that vitamin K supplements at doses higher than nutritional needs may help fight osteoporosis. The AI (Adequate Intake) of vitamin K is measured in micrograms (shown as mcg). The AI is 30 mcg for children ages 1 to 3, 55 mcg for children 4 to 8, 60 mcg for those ages 9 to 13, and 75 mcg for those ages 14 to 18. For males 19 years and older, it is 120 mcg. For females 19 years and older, it is 90 mcg. There is no UL established for vitamin K. (See ConsumerLab.com's Vitamin K Product Review for more information.)

Minerals and Other Ingredients:

• Calcium - While critical for strong bones and teeth, calcium is a very bulky material and most multis therefore do not contain the total recommended daily intake amount in a tablet, as it might make the tablet too large. Consequently, people should consider getting their calcium from a separate calcium supplement or fortified food or beverage. The AI for calcium is 500 mg for children 1 to 3, 800 mg for children 4 to 8, and 1,300 mg for children 9 to 18. For adults aged 19 to 50, it is 1,000 mg. For those 51 years and older it is 1,200 mg per day. The UL for calcium is 2,500 mg and applies to all individuals 1 year and older. Excessive use of calcium supplements might raise risk of kidney and bladder stones. (See ConsumerLab.com's Calcium Product Review for more information.)
  
  
• Chromium plays a role in the body's regulation of blood sugar. Chromium is found in liver and whole-wheat products. It is unclear whether marginal chromium deficiency occurs commonly or rarely. Chromium supplementation (especially in doses considerably above nutritional needs) has shown some promise for helping to regulate blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes. Chromium is also sold as a weight-loss aid, but there is little evidence that it really works. AI's for chromium are measured in micrograms (shown as mcg) and are: 11 mcg for children ages 1 to 3, and 15 mcg for children ages 4 to 8. For boys ages 9 to 13, it is 25 mcg, while for girls it is 21 mcg. For males ages 14 to 50 it is 35 mcg. For females ages 14 to 18 it is 24 mcg, rising to 25 mcg for those ages 19 to 50. For men 51 years and older it is 30 mcg, and for women aged 51 and older it is 20 mcg. Women who are pregnant need more ‹ 29 mcg if 18 or younger and 30 mcg if 19 and older, while lactating women need even more ‹ 44 mcg if 18 or younger and 45 mcg if 19 or older. There is no UL established for chromium, but there are concerns that excessive intake could cause kidney and other organ damage in certain susceptible people. (See ConsumerLab.com's Weight Loss/Diabetes Management Product Review for more information.)
  
  
• Copper is necessary for proper development of connective tissue, nerve coverings, and skin pigment. Copper is found in foods such as organ meats, oysters, nuts, and seeds and can be obtained in sufficient quantity from a good diet. People who take zinc supplements may need to take extra copper. Copper in supplements may be shown in milligrams (mg) or micrograms (shown as mcg). One milligram is equal to 1,000 micrograms. The RDAs are: 340 mcg for children ages 1 to 3, 440 mcg for children ages 4 to 8, 700 mcg for those ages 9 to 13, 890 mcg for those 14 to 18. For people over 19 years of age, the RDA is 900 mcg. For women who are pregnant the RDA is 1,000 mcg, while for lactating women it is 1,300 mcg. Excessive consumption of copper may cause nausea and liver damage. The daily upper limits for copper are 1,000 mcg for children ages 1 to 3, 3,000 mcg for those 4 to 8, 5,000 mcg for those 9 to 13, 8,000 mcg for those 14 to 18, and 10,000 mcg for people 19 years and older. It is also worth noting that a recent study found an association between excess copper intake in and accelerated mental decline: People over age 65 who consumed and average 2,750 mcg of copper per day and had diets high in saturated and trans fats from suffered mental decline almost 1.5 times as great as people with similar diets but who averaged only 880 mg of copper per day. Another good reason to limit copper intake.
  
  Animal studies have shown that one form of copper called copper (or cupric) oxide may not be well absorbed. Other forms, such as copper sulfate, cupric acetate, and alkaline copper carbonate, may, therefore, be preferable. Unfortunately, copper oxide is common in supplements (including some that have "passed" CL's testing) because it is less bulky and allows for smaller pills.
  
  
• Iodine is needed for making thyroid hormones, and iodine deficiency causes hypothyroidism (low thyroid). However, iodine deficiency is uncommon in the developed world, and too much iodine can also cause hypothyroidism! Seafood and seaweeds provide iodine. In addition most table salt is now iodized and represents a good dietary source of iodine. The RDAs are given in micrograms (shown as mcg) and are: 90 mcg for children ages 1 to 8, and 120 mcg for children ages 9 to 13. For both males and females ages 14 and older, the RDA is 150 mcg. However, for pregnant women it is 220 mcg, and for lactating women it is 290 mcg. Too much iodine taken during pregnancy can cause problems in infants. ULs for iodine are: 200 mcg for children ages 1 to 3, 300 mcg for those 4 to 8, 600 mcg for those 9 to 13, 900 mcg for those 14 to 18, and 1,100 mcg for all people 19 years and older.
  
  
• Iron deficiency is the leading cause of anemia. Deficiency is most common in menstruating woman and is also seen in some children and pregnant women. Adult men are seldom deficient in iron, and many multivitamins for adult men specifically leave out iron, because there are concerns that excess iron intake might increase risk of heart disease. Meat, poultry and fish are rich in iron. Dried fruits, grains and green leafy vegetables are also good sources, although iron f